标签：澳洲阿德莱德大学Assignment代写

如上所述，或许在谈到特定的环境伦理时必须提出的最基本的问题是，我们对自然环境有什么义务？如果答案仅仅是我们作为人类，如果我们不限制我们对自然的行为就会灭亡，那么这种伦理被认为是“人类中心主义”。人类中心主义的字面意思是“以人为中心”，在某种意义上说，所有道德必须被视为人类中心主义。毕竟，据我们所知，只有人类可以推理和反思道德问题，从而使所有道德辩论都明确地“以人为本”。然而，在环境伦理中，人类中心主义通常意味着更多的东西。它通常指的是一种仅为人类赋予“道德立场”的道德框架。因此，一种以人类为中心的伦理主张只有人类在道德上本身就具有相当大的意义，这意味着我们拥有的所有直接道德义务，包括我们对环境的所有义务，都归于我们的同胞。虽然西方哲学的历史由这种人类中心主义主导，但它受到了许多环境伦理学家的大量攻击。这些思想家声称道德必须超越人类，道德地位应该与非人类自然世界相提并论。有些人声称，这种延伸应该适用于有感知的动物，其他应该适用于个体生物，还有一些适用于河流，物种和生态系统等整体实体。在这些道德规范下，我们对环境有义务，因为我们实际上欠环境中的生物或实体本身。确定我们的环境义务是否建立在人类中心主义或非人类中心主义推理的基础上，将导致对这些义务的不同描述。本节探讨了环境伦理中道德立场的重要说明，以及各自的含义。 澳洲阿德莱德大学Assignment代写：扩大道德立场 As noted above, perhaps the most fundamental question that must be asked when regarding a particular environmental ethic is simply, what obligations do we have concerning the natural environment? If the answer is simply that we, as human beings, will perish if we do not constrain our actions towards nature, then that ethic is considered to be “anthropocentric.” Anthropocentrism literally means “human-centeredness,” and in one sense all ethics must be considered anthropocentric. After all, as far as we know, only human beings can reason about and reflect upon ethical matters, thus giving all moral debate a definite “human-centeredness.” However, within environmental ethics anthropocentrism usually means something more than this. It usually refers to an ethical framework that grants “moral standing” solely to human beings. Thus, an anthropocentric ethic claims that only human beings are morally considerable in their own right, meaning that all the direct moral obligations we possess, including those we have with regard to the environment, are owed...

现象保守主义是认识论中的一种理论，它大致寻求以对事物“出现”或“看似”的方式来证明信仰的理由。这种理论符合基本主义的内在形式 - 也就是说，一些信仰是非推理的（不是基于其他信仰），而信仰的理由或缺乏理由完全取决于信徒的内部。心理状态。直观的想法是，假设事物是他们看起来的方式是有道理的，除非并且直到有理由怀疑这一点。这个想法被用来解释特别是感性信念的理由和道德信仰的正当性。有些人认为它可以用来解释所有认知论证。有人声称，对现象保守主义（PC）的否认使得一个人处于一种自我毁灭的立场，即PC自然地从范式的内在主义直觉中产生，并且PC为哲学怀疑主义的威胁提供了唯一简单而自然的解决方案。批评者反对说，如果缺乏外观可靠的积极，独立的证据，不应该相信外表;该理论允许荒谬的信念为某些主题辩护;该理论允许非理性或不可靠的认知状态为信仰提供理由;并且该理论对何时以及在何种程度上推论产生信仰的正当性具有不可思议的含义。 澳洲阿德莱德大学Assignment代写：非凡的保守主义 Phenomenal Conservatism is a theory in epistemology that seeks, roughly, to ground justified beliefs in the way things “appear” or “seem” to the subject who holds a belief. The theory fits with an internalistic form of foundationalism—that is, the view that some beliefs are justified non-inferentially (not on the basis of other beliefs), and that the justification or lack of justification for a belief depends entirely upon the believer’s internal mental states. The intuitive idea is that it makes sense to assume that things are the way they seem, unless and until one has reasons for doubting this. This idea has been invoked to explain, in particular, the justification for perceptual beliefs and the justification for moral beliefs. Some believe that it can be used to account for all epistemic justification. It has been claimed that the denial of Phenomenal Conservatism (PC) leaves one in a self-defeating position, that PC naturally emerges from paradigmatic internalist intuitions, and that...